After the death of Margaret, several claimants vied for the Scottish crown. Robert the Bruce’s family had a legitimate claim through descent, competing against others such as John Balliol. Edward I of England was invited to arbitrate the succession dispute. Rather than remaining neutral, Edward sought to assert overlordship over Scotland. He e

Introduction Robert the Bruce stands as one of Scotland’s most iconic historical figures, celebrated for his leadership during the Wars of Scottish Independence and his role in securing Scotland’s freedom from English rule. His life story is a tale of ambition, resilience, military skill, and political acumen. Over the centuries, Robert the Br

The contribution of indigenous allies was indispensable. Tlaxcalan warriors, in particular, provided critical military support during the siege of Tenochtitlan. These alliances were not without tension—indigenous allies often had their own agendas and rivalries, and some saw the Spanish as temporary partners against the Aztecs rather than conq

Montezuma II’s response to Cortés’ arrival was cautious and complex. Some sources suggest he believed Cortés to be a divine figure, possibly the returning god Quetzalcoatl, while others argue Montezuma was a pragmatic ruler attempting to buy time and assess the threat. Cortés entered Tenochtitlan in November 1519, greeted with ceremony an